An economic analysis of energy use in paddy cultivation: A comparative study of direct seeded rice (DSR) vs puddled transplanted rice (PTR) practices in Punjab, India

Agriculture and energy consumption have a strong relationship, and achieving agricultural sustainability relies on a balance of production, environmental, and economic factors. A comparative analysis of two paddy cultivation systems—Direct Seeded Rice (DSR) and Puddled Transplanted Rice (PTR)—conducted in Punjab during the agricultural year 2021-22, revealed notable differences in energy use. Both input and output energy levels were lower on DSR farms, measuring 21,708.61 MJ/acre and 87,431 MJ/acre, respectively, compared to PTR farms, which recorded 24,816.79 MJ/acre for input energy and 88,451 MJ/acre for output energy. Despite the higher total input energy in the PTR method—approximately 13% greater than that of DSR—the net energy gain for DSR was more favourable at 65,722.57 MJ/acre, compared to 63,634.26 MJ/acre for PTR. In both systems, chemical fertilizers emerged as the primary energy source, accounting for approximately 41% to 42% of total input energy, with nitrogenous fertilizers contributing the largest share. The energy intensity of PTR was notably high at 8.86 MJ/kg, indicating substantial potential for enhancing energy productivity in rice cultivation under this method. Additionally, total variable costs (TVC) were approximately 16% lower for DSR, amounting to Rs 23,344.06 per acre, in contrast to Rs 27,677.33 per acre for PTR. Human labour constituted the largest expense, representing around 23% of costs in DSR and 33% in PTR. Although DSR produced marginally lower yields—2,769 kg per acre compared to 2,801.3 kg per acre for PTR—the net Return on Variable Costs (ROVC) was approximately 13% higher in DSR, at Rs 31,482.14 per acre versus Rs 27,788.41 per acre for PTR, primarily due to lower variable costs associated with DSR. The production cost per kilogram of grain using DSR was calculated at Rs 8.43, which is about 15% less than the cost of Rs 9.88 per kilogram in PTR. These findings suggest that DSR is a resource- and cost-efficient technology for paddy cultivation. To facilitate its broader adoption, there is a need to enhance farmer awareness of recommended DSR production practices and the associated benefits.